초기 근대 무역 시스템의 효과

Early Modern Ports, 1500 및 1750.
게시 된 Erschienen : 2010-12-03 & # 160; & # 160;
항만은 거래의 탁월한 차량입니다. 태고 적부터 항구는 상품, 사람 및 아이디어를 교환하는 관문이었습니다. 이러한 교류는 특정 도시의 좁은 도시 벽을 넘어 전지구 적 접촉을 구성함으로써 특정 분야에서 세계 역사상 달성 된 관련성을 결정했습니다. 비록 중세 후기와 르네상스 항구가 지중해 분지에 위치해 있었지만 유럽의 해외 진출과 현지 경쟁은 유럽 항구의 발달을 대서양 축으로 옮겼습니다. 유럽의 북서부 도시들은 중앙 경제, 사회, 정치 및 문화의 대부분을 차지했습니다 거대 대도시의 역할, 오늘날까지 전 지구 적 상호 작용을위한 중요한 마디 포인트를 남겼습니다.
Inhaltsverzeichnis 목차.
소개.
태어나 기 시작한 이래, 바다는 주간의 연결 고리 였고 항만은 다양한 민족과 문화 간 다리를 연결해 왔습니다. 1 항만은 지역 사회를 더 가깝게 만들뿐만 아니라 해상과의 연계와 다른 정치 권력과 문명 간의 연결로서의 지위에 고유 한 기능을 가지고있었습니다. 이 기사는 포트를 "포트", "내륙"및 "지역"과 같이 역사적인 연구의 대상으로 간주 할 때 세 가지 핵심 개념의 정의부터 시작합니다. 이 세 가지 개념은 역사가들이 지금까지 항구, 그들의 영향력 및 역사에서 그들의 역할을 고려한 틀을 그려 낸다.
이 기사는 역사상 얻은 포트가 다른 기능을 탐색하고 이러한 기능이 각 포트의 역사적 발전에 어떻게 영향을 미치는지 살펴봄으로써 진행될 것입니다. 좋은 항구 수를 가정하고 세계 선수로서의 성공 또는 실패의 결과에 영향을 미친 경제, 정치, 사회 및 문화적 기능에 특히주의를 기울일 것입니다.
항구, 배후지 및 지역.
역사에서 항구의 역할과 영향을 연구 할 때 포트에 대해 글을 쓸 때 역사가가 의미하는 바를 이해하는 것이 중요합니다. 초기 현대 항구의 개념은 중세 도시 전통에 뿌리를두고 있습니다. "항구"라는 제목은 일반적으로 교역이 주된 마을에 주어졌으며 주요 강 기슭이나 바다에 위치해있었습니다. 무역 및 시장 활동의 역할이 특정 항구에 충분히 중요하게되었을 때, 그러한 활동은 도시 당국 또는 중앙 정부 (왕)에 의해 규제 될 것이다.
초기 근대 기간 동안 항구의 개념은 비슷했습니다. 도시 수준에서, 도시 구성을보고 항구를 다른 유형의 도시와 구별 할 수 있습니다. 포트를 표시 한 세 가지 특성이있었습니다. 첫째, 항만은 사람들과 제품의 이동의 중심이었습니다. 둘째, 항구의 도시 형태에는 항상 조선소, 창고, 세관, 공개 시장, 여관 및 선술집과 같이 도시를 지배하는 특정 건물이나 공간이있었습니다. 마지막으로, 항만은 보호 한 특정 사회 경제적 단체에 의해 식별 될 수도 있습니다. 예를 들어, 항구는 일반적으로 많은 수의 상인, 은행가, 장부 관리인, 상점 주인, 조선소 및 외국인을 끌어 들였습니다. 2.
항구가 바다 또는 강 하구를 경유하여 직접 연결되는 도시 구조로서 중요했지만 초기 근대 항구는 다른 모든 도시와 도시와 마찬가지로 그 당시의 내륙 지역 없이는 생존 할 수 없었습니다. 내륙 지방의 주요 개념은 항구를 즉시 둘러싼 시골 환경의 개념입니다. 그러나이 정의에 대한 몇 가지 논쟁이 있습니다. 중세의 역사가들은 내륙 지방이 항구를 둘러싼 공간이라고 말했지만, 도시는 그들에 대한 관할권을 가지고 있기 때문에 도시 구조의 일부이기도합니다. 실제로 그것은 도시 시스템이 도시 요소 인 & # 8211; 포트 & # 8211; 농촌 지역의 요소 & # 8211; 내륙 지방. 삼.
초기 근대 해양 및 도시 역사 학자들은 배후 지역에 대한 그들의 정의와 함께 나아갔습니다. 그들은 내륙 지방이 종종 항구의 관할권 내에 있었던 중세 주의자들에 동의하지만 초기 근대 기간 동안 비공식적 인 내륙 지대가 성장했다는 생각을 강조한다. 비공식적 인 내륙 지역이라 함은 중세 주의자들이 제시 한 명확한 관할 구역 정의뿐만 아니라 항구가 주변 공간에 영향을 미친 정도와 그 공간이 항구에 영향을 미친 정도를 의미한다. 그러므로 초기 근대 기간 (즉, 항구에 종속적 인) 즉각적인 시골 배후지를보아야 만 할뿐만 아니라 이주와 장거리 무역 및 문화 교류의 영역을 포함 할 수있는보다 넓은 공간에서 볼 수있다. . 4 특히 유럽 항구가 해외 기업으로 진출한시기에 내륙 지대가 대륙 횡단 특성을 가질 수 있다고 주장하는 사람들도 있습니다. 5.
근대 후기 지역의 정의와 유럽 항구와의 공생 관계는 특정 지역에서 각 항구가 차지한 위치를 결정하고 그 지역을 넘어서 종종 국제 및 글로벌 경기장으로 진출하는 데 결정적으로 중요했습니다. 중부 지대의 정의에 대한 이러한 접근법은 중세에서 근세기에 이르기까지 항구와 내륙 지대가 덜 관할적으로 부착되고보다 비공식적으로 연결되는 진화를 의미합니다.
보다 넓은 역사적 맥락에서 항구의 발전과 자리를 고려할 때, 우리는 두 가지 기본 이론적 틀, 즉 중앙 장소 이론과 네트워크 이론에 의존한다. 중앙 장소 이론은 도시를 주변 시골에서 오는 제품의 소비 및 상업화의 중심지로 간주합니다. 6이 마을들은 상업 시장으로 기능 할뿐만 아니라 서비스 제공자로도 기능 할 것입니다. 이러한 서비스의 다양성과 효율성은 주로 마을의 규모에 달려 있습니다. 이 이론은 주위의 농업 지역에 가까운 링크가있는 작은 마을은보다 광범위한 서비스를 제공하는 더 큰 마을의 수준 아래에 배치되며, 차례로 지역 도시 개발의 기반이 될 것이라고 말합니다. 지역 도시가 제공하는 서비스의 효율성과 다양성은 다른 도시가 제공해야하는 서비스의 수준을 능가 할 것입니다. 7.
중앙 장소 이론에 의해 구성된 계층 적 시스템은 문제를 제기합니다. 작은 마을, 큰 도시 및 지역 센터에서 제공하는 서비스를 세분화하면 지역 계층 구조가 제공된 서비스의 유형에 의존한다는 것을 알 수 있습니다. 예를 들어, 작은 마을은 큰 도시보다 더 중요한 농업 시장을 제공했을 수도 있지만 대개 큰 도시 나 지방 도시처럼 금융 서비스를 제공하지 않았습니다. 최종 분석에서는 특정 서비스에 의존하는 여러 계층 구조로 구성된 다양한 서비스를 고려할 수 있습니다. 이것은 자본, 노동 또는 시장과 같은 경제적 요인, 법 집행, 공공 행정 또는 세수 징수와 같은 행정 요소, 또는 심지어 문화적 요인 및 기술 보급에도 적용됩니다.
중앙 장소 이론은 많은 의문과 의문을 제기하며 고립되어서는 안된다. 다른 이론으로 그것을 보충 할 필요가있다. 그 이론 중 가장 좋은 것은 Paul M. Hohenberg와 Lynn H. Lees가 완전히 개발 한 것으로 보인다. 유럽의 도시화에 대한 조사에서 그들은 체계적으로 네트워크 이론을 중앙 장소 시스템과 결합시켜 도시 상호 작용이라는 개념을 한 단계 더 발전시켰다.
호헨 베르 (Hohenberg)와리스 (Lees)는 중앙의 위계 질서의 하위와 중위 수준에서 마을 들간, 특히 항구 들간에 어느 정도 협력이 있어야 함을 암시한다. 그래서 Hohenberg와 Lees는 도시와 도시가 그 기능에 따라 분석 될 필요가 있다고 생각합니다. 저자의 주장에 따르면, 그 기능은 지리뿐만 아니라 다른 도시 지역과의 연관성에 의해서도 정의됩니다. 이는 초기 근대 기간 동안 항구가 더 많은 서비스를 제공 할 수있는 더 나은 위치에 있었고, 이는 배후지 및 도시 파트너와 관련하여 가장 유리한 위치를 차지할 수 있음을 의미했습니다. 오지가 배후에서 유입되면할수록 공식적 또는 비공식적 인 영향을받는 지역이 더 커졌으며 도시 상호 연결 및 상호 의존성에 대한 잠재력이 커졌습니다.
네트워크 이론의 결과 중 하나는 도시 연결과 상호 의존성이 상호 연결된 포트 네트워크의 성장에 따라 증가한다는 것입니다. 이러한 긴밀한 관계 덕분에 모든 종류의 경제적, 사회적 및 문화적 제품의 유통이 쉬워졌습니다. 처음에는 제품이나 자본 같은 물질적 인 것들이 주로 분포되어있었습니다. 그러나 아이디어 (아이디어), 기술 개발 및 정보와 같은 주체적 인 것들 (사람들)은 그 어느 때보 다 더 빠르게 여행하고 침투하여 항만 / 배후 네트워크 시스템의 복잡성이 계속 증가하고 있습니다.
직접 배후지, 지역, 국가 간 및 대륙 간 네트워크의 항만과 도시 지역 간 서비스 및 상호 작용의 증가하는 수는 역사적으로 항구가 수행 한 세계화 역할의 궁극적 인 징후로 많은 사람들이 볼 수있는 기능을 부여했습니다. 즉, 게이트웨이로서 기능한다. 9이 관문의 역할은 초기 근대 기간에 항구가 가진 여러 가지 기능을 고려할 때 특히 중요했다. 대부분의 대도시가 항구 였고 대부분이 유럽 확장의 일반적인 운동에서 어떤 방식 으로든지 참여했다. 해외.
그러나 초기의 모든 현대 포트가 대형 포트였던 것은 아니며 모든 포트가 글로벌 게이트웨이였던 것은 아닙니다. 상트 페테르부르크가 러시아 국가 궤도에서 맡았던 역할과 마찬가지로 외부 세계와 접촉 할 필요가있는 강한 국가에 의해 사회, 경제 및 문화적 "창 기능"의 위치에 들어가기도했다 . 10 스칸디나비아의 일부 작은 항구와 같은 다른 지역은 대립 중 앙국 간의 경쟁이 L & D의 경우와 마찬가지로 그들 중 하나의 무결성을 위협하는 상황에서 영토 경계의 경계 보루로 사용되었습니다 스웨덴 - 노르웨이 국경에. 11.
사회, 경제 및 문화적 거래.
초기 근대 기간 동안 게이트웨이로 간주되는 역할 포트는 트랜잭션이 발생한 도시 환경이라는 사실에 기인 할 수 있습니다. 이러한 거래는 수없이 많았으며 당시 다기능 캐릭터 포트가 가지고 있던 것을 반영했습니다.
초기 근대 항구의 가장 주요하고 독특한 기능은 통상적으로 무역이라고 불리는 상품 거래이지만, 조선, 부기 및 공증인 등록, 신용 거래, 보험 및 경우에 따라 전문 증권 거래소 및 회사의 조직도 포함합니다. 12.
조기 근대 포트가 제품 게이트웨이의 역할에서 성공한 것은 각 포트가 속한 거래 네트워크에서의 위치에 따라 결정되었습니다. 베니스, 세비야, 리스본, 카디스와 같은 일부 지역이 주로 대륙간 거래의 중심지였던 경우 앤트워프, 암스테르담 또는 런던과 같은 항구가 지역 센터에서 대륙간 권력으로 성장하여 수세기 전에 발생한 유럽의 무역 네트워크와 새로 발견 된 대서양 사이의 다리가되었습니다. 아시아 노선. 13.
대부분의 항구에서 무역의 본질은 다소간 자유 시장에서 제품 교환에 의존했다. 따라서 번창하는 항구의 경우 생산 매장, 소비 시장 및 시장 행동에 대한 지식이 가장 중요했습니다. 이 지식은 생산 기술, 기상 조건, 신용도 및 유행에 대한 정보를 제공합니다. 왜냐하면 주어진 순간에 사용할 수있는 정보의시기와 양에 따라 정보의 정도가 특정 포트에서 또는 특정 포트에 대해 작용할 수 있기 때문입니다. 따라서 정보의 흐름이 최소한 효율적이지 않은 경우 중요한 국제 항구는 제품 거래에있어 잘 수행 할 수 없었습니다. 초기 근대 (Early Modern) 시대의 주요 정보 출처는 입소문 (주로 개인적인 접촉이나 개인 서한을 통해)이었고 일부 지역에서는 언론 매체 였지만 후자는 거의 무시할 만하다. 정보는 사람들과 함께 여행했기 때문에 다른 유형의 마을과 비교했을 때 항구가 유리했습니다. 사람들은 종종 제품을 가지고 여행했고, 항구는 항구에서의 일자리가 광범위하거나 다른 곳으로 이동할 수있는 기회 때문에 항상 이민자들에게 매력적인 환경 이었기 때문에 뉴스는 대부분의 항구에 빠르게 도착했습니다.
초기 유럽 근교에 도달하는 대부분의 정보 흐름이 실용적인 성격을 띠며, 종종 무역 (예 : 부족, 가격, 기상, 전쟁, 출항 금지 등의 소식)과 관련이있는 경우, 지적 거래의 흐름 또한있었습니다. 정보로 분류하십시오. 책, 팜플렛 및 종교 서적의 수입 / 수출을 통한 서면 지식 교환은 지적 교류의 최전선에 항구를 배치했습니다. 따라서 대부분의 항구가 비 정통 종교적 사상, 정치적 개념 또는 기술 발전에 대한 다소 관대 한 환경이었던 것은 놀랄 일이 아닙니다.
초기 근대 항구의 유럽 네트워크에서 실제적이고 지적 인 정보의 양이 늘어남에 따라이 마을의 많은 곳에서 인간 거래가 중요하게되었다는 사실이 강조되었습니다. 무역과 관련된 제조업, 서비스 및 군사 활동의 확산은 대부분의 유럽 항만 시스템 내에서 유동적이고 유연한 노동력에 대한 영구적 인 요구를 부과했습니다. 많은 경우 전문적인 활동을 제공하기 때문에 항만은 다른 도시보다 상대적으로 높은 임금을받을 수 있고 영구적으로 일할 수있는 곳이 일정한 장소로 알려져 왔습니다. 이러한 상황으로 인해 시골 배후지, 지역 또는 해외의 비공식적 인 배후지에서 온 상당수의 이민자가 유입되었습니다. 15.
대부분의 항만의 사회적 구성에 영향을 미치기 때문에 사회적 상호 작용, 종교 교류 및 문화 교류의 특별한 환경을 조성합니다. 리스본, 리보르노, 리버풀 또는 마르세이유의 경우와 마찬가지로 서부 해안 또는 아프리카 북부에서 수입 된 노예들과 자유 아프리카 인들의 공평한 분배를받은 유럽 항구의 경우는 분명했습니다.
노예들이 그들의 의지와 달리 이주하도록 강요 당하면, 다른 그룹들은 종교적 박해로 인해 그들의 마을을 떠났습니다. 그것은 종교 재판을 피하기 위해 고향을 떠나도록 강요당한 종교 재판이나 위그노 교도의 행동으로 종종 망명감을 갖게되는 이베리아 신 기독교인들과 관련이 있습니다. 상당수의 이민자들이 앤트워프, 암스테르담, 함부르크 또는 런던과 같은 북서부 유럽 항구로 피난하여 350 년 이상이 항구의 경제, 사회 및 문화 생활에 크게 기여했습니다.
불행하게도 모든 초기 이주민이 성공한 것은 아니었고 목적지 항구에서의 생존은 종종 노동 시장의 불안정성이나 경제적 위기에 의해 방해 받았다. 종종 도시 덩어리의 약한 구성원들은 생존을 위협하는 어려운 상황에 빠져 들었습니다. 한 남성과 여성, 홀아비, 미망인 또는 고아의 경우와 마찬가지로, 어떤 이유로 든 전통적인 가족 체제에서 자리를 잡지 못하는 모든 사회 구성원들과 마찬가지입니다. 이 집단들 중에서 젊은 여성들은 가장 위험한 상황에 처한 사람들이었는데, 그 이유는 거대한 익명의 대도시에서의 존재가 종종 범죄 나 도덕적으로 의심스러운 것으로 인식되기 때문입니다. 종종 빈곤에 의해 또는 시간의 자선 단체에 의한 배제로 인해 소득이 필요한 상황에 이르렀을 때, 어떤 사람들은 가려움을 당하거나 소매치기를하거나 매춘을 강요 당했다.
매춘이 초기 근대 항구의 공통적 인 특징 이었지만, 그 인식은 동시대 인들의 감정에 의해 지나치게 강조되어왔다. 최근의 연구에 따르면 성매매는 대다수의 결혼 한 여성들이 계절에 따른 활동으로 빈약 한 가계 소득을 보충하기 위해 사용되었습니다. 이 여성들은 종종 선원이나 군인으로 남편의 직업 때문에 가족의 머리의 위치로 강제되었습니다. 그들의 남자들이 항해 나 캠페인을 시작했을 때, 대부분의 여성들은 남자들의 임금 (대개 아주 작은 부분)의 일부와 가족을 남겨 두었습니다. 봄과 여름에 그들은 가을과 겨울이 일자리를 찾기가 힘들었지 만, 항만이나 항구의 소규모 직업을 구할 수있었습니다. 자선 신청을 할 수없는 사람들은 매춘을 강요당했습니다. 그것은 17 세기와 18 세기의 대부분의 네덜란드와 영국 항구에서 확실합니다. 16.
이러한 정보 흐름의 대부분을 유지하는 데 필요한 실제적이고 지적인 정보와 관용의 폭이 넓어지면서 포트는 지역 및 외국 학자, 지식인, 성직자 및 상인 커뮤니티가 자신들의 출신 국으로 출국해야하는 안전한 피난처가되었습니다. 종교적, 과학적 또는 정치적 신념을 사람들이 종종 작은 도시 공간에서 함께 살도록 강요 당하면서 종교적, 문화적, 사회적 관용이 특히 법과 질서 집행에 관한 문제에서 사회적 정체성으로서의 항구의 생존을 위해 가장 중요하게되었다.
도시 인구 밀집은 많은 이민자들이 항소했던 많은 결과 중 하나였습니다. 대부분의 전통적인 중세 성벽에서 대규모 인구의 공존으로 인한 공중 보건 문제를 극복하기 위해 다른 유형의 마을보다 잘 갖추어졌지만 항구는 외곽 지역으로 확장하여 오염을 피하기위한 공중 보건 규정을 만들도록 강요 받았다 (예를 들어 , 도시 내에서 오염 된 산업을 제외 시킴), 가난한 구호 (교회와 길드와 같은 종교 및 사회 조직을 통하지 않는 것보다 더 자주)를 촉진하고 때로는 성문을 통해 사람들의 접근을 규제하거나 그 결과로 "시민"을 "비 시민", 즉 사회 경제적 노선에 의해 끌어 당겨지지 않은 부문에서 분리함으로써 "도시 정신"의 발전을 장려하는 것입니다. 마을에 얼마나 오래 살았습니까. 17.
많은 사람들에게 불행하게도 공중 보건 규정과 마을에 대한 통제 된 접근은 중세, 조기 현대 및 심지어 현대 항구가 인구의 생활을 위협 할뿐만 아니라 그 자체의 존재 자체를 위협하는 심각한 전염병에 빠지지 않도록 막아주지 못했습니다. 인구 과밀로 인해 시의회에 심각한 도전이되었지만 항구의 경우 가장 위험한 위협은 바다에서 발생했습니다. 일반적으로 계절에 구속 된 외국 선박의 지속적인 도착은 감시가 때때로 약화되거나 존재하지 않는 부두 주변으로 바쁜 기간을 초래했습니다. 이로 인해 출발 항구 또는 바다에서 종종 감염되는 병든 승무원 및 오염 된 제품의 유입이 허용되었습니다. 때로는 자신의 건강 상태를 알지 못하는 경우도 있지만 외국 선박은 건전한 항만을 방문하여 비즈니스 거래에 필요한만큼 오래 머물렀고 과밀로 인해 도시 전역에 빠르게 퍼져 나가는 질병과 역병의 흔적을 남겼습니다 도시 환경 내의 조건. 18.
부정적인 거래라고 불릴 수있는 결과를 피하기 위해 주민이나 시의회가 할 수있는 일은 거의 없었다. 그러나 항상 활용할 수있는 자원이나 취할 수있는 조치가있었습니다. 도시에 살았던 사람들에게있어서, 전염병이나 질병이 발발했을 때의 명백한 선택은 도시의 관할 구역, 즉 전통 배후 지역의 시골 지역을 위해 도시를 포기하는 것이 었습니다. 그러나 이것은 부유하거나 건강한 사람들에게만 도시를 포기하고 그들의 일상 생활을 위험에 빠뜨리지 않고 활동을 떠날 수있는 충분한 가능성이었습니다. 반면에 시골 지역을 버리는 것은 시골이 질병의 확산을 막을 수있는 한 유일한 선택 사항이었습니다. 도시 거주자가 시골 지역을 홍수하기 시작하자마자 병이 도심 벽 안에 갇혀있는 것처럼 신속하게 확산되어 피난처의 건강 지역을 더욱 멀어지게했습니다. 유복 한 사람들이 떠날 수있는 선택을하는 동안, 덜 부유 한 주민들은 그렇게 할 수 없었습니다. 그들에게 시의회는 규정을 통해 먹을 것과 물을 공급할 수있는 선택권과 가능한 한 빨리 사형수를 ​​묻기를 종교 기관에 강요하는 선택 만했다.
항구의 질병 확산으로 인한 신체 상해, 혼란 및 경제적 손실을 피하기 위해 서유럽 전역의 많은 시의회는 전염병에 시달렸거나 출현 한 선박의 경우 규제 조치로 일련의 로마법을 적용했습니다 전염병이보고 된 지역. 이 법률에 따르면, 시의회는 특정 항구에서 왔거나 특정 지리적 영역에 종사 한 선박 및 대원을 차별 할 권리가있었습니다. 이를 위해 항구는 위험이 지나갈 때 해제 된 일시적인 금수 조치를 받았다. (선상에 질병이 없었거나 검역이 성공했거나 배가 방금 떠났기 때문에). 원래 질병의 확산에 맞선 몇 안되는 무기 중 하나로 사용되었지만 경제적 경쟁자의 몰락을 가져 오기 위해 정치적 목적으로 건강 금지 조치가 종종 사용되었습니다. 이 메커니즘이 악용 된 방식의 좋은 예가 제노아가 베네치아 선박에 부과 한 끝없는 금수 조치 였고, 각 도시는 지중해 동부에서의 상업적 노력을 자극하여 다른 쪽을 해치려했습니다.
무역 및 제조 활동으로 인한 경제적 권력과 연합 된 시민 정신의 강력한 발전은 유럽의 대부분의 항구에 지적 관용과 정치적 자치권을 부여했습니다. 초기 근대 유럽 항구는 중앙 집중화 된 국가의 상황에서 살아남 았지만 정치적 중심성을 생각하고 수도가되거나 중 앙의 정치적 교류를 규제하는 중세 헌장을 재협상함으로써 정치 스펙트럼 내에서 자치권을 협상 할 수있었습니다 권력 (왕)과 마을 사람들 (무역 및 제조 활동과 관련된 요소들이 도시 사회 질서의 다른 모든 대표들과 나란히 앉아있는 잘 조직 된 도시 평의회에서 흔히 나타남). 19.
유럽 ​​항구의 핵심 기능은 일반적으로 포트가 여러 도시에서 유럽 도시 네트워크 내에서 가정 할 수 있었기 때문에 가능한 광범위한 거래를 만들고, 개발하고, 능가하는 능력이었습니다.
지역 마을에서 글로벌 플레이어.
대부분의 초기 근대 항구는 부유 한 도시 환경 이었지만 모든 도시가 비슷한 성과를 거두는 것은 아닙니다. 포트의 성장과 성공은 가능한 두 가지 기원과 하나의 결과로 명확한 개발 경로를 따라 간 것 같습니다. 초기 근대 항구는 전통적인 비공식 배후지 시스템 외부로 모험을 할 때 또는 지역 및 지역 수준에서 동료들과 경쟁 게임을 통해 기세를 얻음으로써 주요 대도시로 발전했습니다.
베니스, 세비야, 리스본, 카디스와 같은 항구는 자신들이 속한 중앙 국가 (베니스의 경우 도시 자체)가 해외로 확대하는 더 광범위하고 일반적인 움직임 속에서 자신들의 유명한 지위를 빚지고있다. 지중해에서의 베네치아 확장은 모두 대서양과 인도양에서의 포르투갈과 스페인 확장에 필적합니다. 베니스, 세 빌라, 리스본 및 카디스가 전통적인 비공식 배후장 시스템을 넘어선 지역에서 획득 한 참신 (제품, 문화, 정보, 지식) 교환에 참여할 수 있었기 때문에 중세 이전에 알려진 세계의 중추적 인 중심지가되었습니다 -16 세기. 20.
베네치아, 포르투갈 및 스페인의 해외 진출이 특정 항구에 큰 이익을 가져다 주었다고하더라도, 그 항구는 특히 북유럽의 다른 현대 항구와 비교할 때 지역 네트워크의 빈약 한 중심지였습니다. 이러한 모든 확장 포트의 상대적으로 고립 된 지리적 상황은 확장 엔터프라이즈에 의존하게되었습니다. 베네치아, 리스본, 세비야 및 카디스는 해외에서의 영향력을 증대시키기 위해 중앙 정부가 시도한 모든 시도를 지원하는 경향이 있었으며 그 모두가 정치 및 외교적 교류에서 뒤엉킨 것으로 나타났습니다. 그 시간의.
꾸준하고 강력한 지역 및 중부 유럽 지역의 부족으로 인해 르네상스와 최초의 대규모 초기 포트는 거래 및 교환의 중심지로서 생존하기 위해 유럽의 맥락에서 파트너를 찾아야했습니다. 21 파트너 선정은 형태면에서 비슷한 항구가 아니라 북부 유럽에있는 모든 배후 항구와 지역 연결이있는 소규모 지역 항구와 관련이 있습니다. 앤트워프, 암스테르담, 함부르크, 발틱 항구와 런던에서 출발하여 주로 배후지와 지역과의 연결 고리가 좋은 지역 항구로 파트너십을위한 선발 과정은 정치적 복잡성과 외교적 합의의 물결에 뒤 따랐습니다.
남부 유럽의 주요 파트너와 교류 할 수있는 기회를 얻기 위해 대부분의 북유럽 항만은 파트너쉽의 주된 후보로 우선하기 위해 지역 경쟁자와 싸워야했습니다. 앤트워프가 브뤼헤와 암스테르담을 능가하여 암스테르담, 플러싱, 홀른 또는 엔크 이젠을 떠난 것은 확실한 사례였습니다. 함부르크는 북부 독일과 발트 해의 라이벌 대부분을 이길 수 있었고 런던은 영국 제도의 제일 중요한 항구가되었습니다.
이 지역 경쟁은 남유럽 항구의 확장 방법과는 달리 파트너에게 유리한 출발점을두고 거래를 할 수있는 이점을 제공함으로써 촉진되었습니다. 남유럽 국가들과의 교류를 유치하기 위해 북유럽 항구에서 사용 된 메커니즘 중 하나는 공장 설립에 의해 파트너로부터 수입 된 제품, 사람 및 아이디어에 대한 특권을 창출하는 것이 었습니다 (포르투갈 공장의 경우와 마찬가지로). 앤트워프) 또는 특권 발급 (런던의 베네 시안 상인과 마찬가지로). 이러한 메커니즘은 북유럽 항구가 제품, 사람 및 아이디어의 재배포 네트워크 (공식 및 비공식)를 통제하는 것이 독점 관행의 중심이되도록 도왔다.
남부 (지중해)에서 북부 (대부분 대서양) 유럽 복합체로의 포트 중심성의 이러한 명확한 움직임은 Fernand Braudel (1902 및 # 8211; 1985) 및 다른 사람들에 의해 잘 문서화되고 탐구되었다. 23 그들은 지중해에서 북유럽 대서양 축으로의 명확한 전환이 있었다고 주장한다. 이 축은 유럽 확장의 개척 항구의 대부분을 대륙간 중심성을 성공적으로 결합 할 수 있었던 큰 다가오는 북부 관문과의 주변 주니어 파트너로 남겼다. 날카로운 지역 경쟁이라는 맥락 속에서 지역 및 내륙 지방의 명성을 지닌 비공식 네트워크.
지중해에서 대서양 축으로의 항구 중심성의 재 할당은 항구로서의 중요성을 넘어 게이트웨이로 나아간 결과를 가져 왔습니다. 이 변화는 Max Weber (1864 & # 8211; 1920)가 종교적 분열에 의해 주장한 것처럼 제품, 사람, 아이디어 및 패션의 수입이 북쪽으로 이동하면서 새로운 경제적, 사회적 및 문화적 가치의 발전을 도왔다는 것을 의미했습니다. 개혁과 반혁포에 의해 시작되었다. 24 16 세기에 시작된 유럽 항만 체계에서의 이러한 일반적인 분열은 여전히 ​​남아있는 북유럽 국가들 사이에 "작은 분기"의 뿌리를 고려해야한다고 비난 받아야한다. 요즘 유럽 연합 내에서 느꼈다. 25.
결론.
항만은 초기 근대 유럽의지도에서 중요한 도시 요소였습니다. 이들은 특정 지역에서 기능을 나타내는 모든 경제적, 사회적 및 문화적 거래에 참여함으로써 그 지위를 달성 한 가장 성공적인 도시였습니다. 르네상스 시대와 16 세기의 가장 중요한 항구는 주로 단일 기능 이었지만, 중부 지방의 해외 진출에 대한 참여로 인해 각기 다른 중요성을 보였으 나 16, 17, 18 세기 후반은 제품의 주요 관문이었습니다. 사람과 아이디어를 전 세계에 교환했습니다.
암스테르담이나 런던과 같은 글로벌 게이트웨이의 중요성은 대륙 횡단 시스템, 지역 네트워크 및 대륙 횡단 교류에서 핵심 노드로 탁월한 역량을 발휘할 수있는 대륙 횡단 철도를 통해 지역 역할을 수행 할 수있는 능력으로 볼 수 있습니다. 이러한 대도시는 북유럽 유럽이 남유럽과 다른 사회적, 정치적, 경제적, 문화적, 종교적 발전을 이룩한 지중해에서 대서양 축으로 이어지는 변화의 엔진이었습니다.
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^ Braudel, La Méditerranée 1976, vol. 1–2; Braudel, Civilisation matérielle 1979, vol. 1–3; Braudel, La Méditerranée: l'espace et l'histoire 1985; Davis, Rise of the Atlantic Economies 1973; Polonia et al., European Seaport Systems 2007. ^ Sacks / Lynch, Ports 1540–1700 2000, p. 379; Broeze, Port Cities 1985, pp. 109–225. ^ Schulze, Städtisches Um - und Hinterland 1985. ^ Clark, Metropolitan Cities 1990, p. 4. ^ Gillespie, A Colonial Capital 1990, pp. 58–66; Ringrose, Metropolitan Cities 1990, pp. 21–38. ^ Walter Christaller's (1893–1969) central place theory from the 1930s was the first attempt to explain the importance of towns in general and the way they related to their surroundings or hinterlands. As a geographer, Christaller saw this relationship in a strictly spatial context, often leaving out important factors such as human mobility, geographical change or economic drive. Christaller, Central Places 1966. ^ Parr, Frequency Distributions, 1980, pp. 141–154. ^ Hohenberg / Lees, The Making of Urban Europe 1995. ^ Vance, The Merchant's World 1970; Bughardt, A Hypothesis 1971, pp. 269–285; Bird, Centrality and Cities 1977, p. 115; Gillespie, Dublin 1996, p. 84–104. ^ Munro, The Most International City 2008; Cross, St. Petersburg 2003. ^ Antunes et al., Ports on the Border 2007, pp. 273–286; Harlitz, Living on the Limit 2007, pp. 299–318. ^ Adams, One's Company 1990; Chaudhury, Merchants, Companies and Trade 1990; Devos, Pratique des documents anciens 1995; Michie, London Stock Exchange 1999; Antunes, Urban Links 2004, pp. 65–85; Schulte Beerbühl et al., Spinning the Commercial Web 2004; Go, Marine Insurance in the Netherlands 2009. ^ Chaunu, Séville et l'Amérique 1977; Kistemaker / Gelder, Amsterdam 1983; Shaw, Séville XVIe siècle 1992; Crespo Solana, Comercio maritimo 2000; O'Brien et al., Urban Achievement 2001; Lesger, Handel in Amsterdam 2001; Martin et al., Venice Reconsidered 2002; Antunes, Globalisation 2004; Weber, Deutsche Kaufleute 2004; Bustos Rodriguez, Cadiz 2005; Lesger, Rise of the Amsterdam Market 2006; Newman, Cultural Capitals 2007. ^ Halasz, Marketplace of Print 1997; Ward, Metropolitan Communities 1997; Mann, The Scottish Book Trade 2000; Dooley et al., The Politics of Information 2001; Raymond, Pamphlets 2003; Jucker, Early Modern English News Discourse 2009; Trivellato, Familiarity 2009. ^ Royen et al., Those Emblems of Hell 1997; Lucassen, Migration 2005. ^ Heijden / Heuvel, Sailors' Families 2007, pp. 296–310. ^ Walter et al., Famine 1989; Livi Bacci, Population and Nutrition 1990; Landers, Death and the Metropolis 1993; Grell et al., Health Care 2002; Lynch, Individuals 2003; Safley, The Reformation of Charity 2003; Diamond, Guns 2005. ^ Naphy / Spicer, Black Death 2000; Cohn, Black Death Transformed 2002; Bailey et al., Hope 2005; Coste, Représentations 2007; Echenberg, Plague Ports 2007. ^ MacKenney, The City State 1989; Parker, Sovereign City 2004; Kirk, Genoa 2005. ^ Jacoby, Studies on the Crusader States 1989; Bethencourt et al., L'empire portugais 2007; Bethencourt et al., Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 2007; Disney, History of Portugal 2009, vol. 1–2. ^ Antunes, Globalisation 2004; Antunes, Sea and Land 2005, pp. 115–145. ^ Engels, Merchants 1997; Gelder, Trading Places 2009; Pohl, Portugiesen in Antwerpen 1977. ^ Braudel, La Méditerranée 1976; Braudel, Civilisation matérielle 1979; Braudel, La Méditerranée: l'espace et l'histoire 1985; Cavaciocchi, Ricchezza del Mare 2005; Davis, Rise of the Atlantic Economies 1973; Scammell, Seafaring, Sailors and Trade 2003; Seafaring, Ships, Oceans and Empires 1995; Seafaring, The First Imperial Age 1992; Seafaring, The World Encompassed 1981; Tracy, The Political Economy of Merchant Empires 1991; Tracy, The Rise of Merchant Empires 1990. ^ Weber, Protestantische Ethik 2006. ^ Antunes, Sea and Land 2005, pp. 115–145; Zanden, The Long Road 2009.
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Zitierempfehlung Citation.
by Cátia Antunes Antunes, Cátia : Early Modern Ports, 1500–1750 , in: Europäische Geschichte Online (EGO), hg. vom Leibniz - Institut für Europäische Geschichte (IEG), Mainz European History Online (EGO), published by the Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG), Mainz 2010-12-03 . URL: ieg-ego. eu/ antunesc-2010 - en URN: urn:nbn:de:0159-2010102547 [JJJJ-MM-TT] [YYYY-MM-DD] .
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UNIT 15: Early Global Commodities.
VIDEO SEGMENT: Silver Connects the World: Europe, East Asia, and West Africa.
The effects of the global trade in silver were worldwide and linked the world in new and unprecedented ways. This segment explores some of those effects in Japan, West Africa, the Americas, China, and Europe.
In Japan, the Tokugawa shoguns grew rich off the trade in silver, which they used to strengthen the state against warlords. In addition, the global silver trade encouraged the Japanese to produce other commodities for export, which then made their way to the Americas, Europe, and West Africa.
In West Africa, Europeans involved in global trading networks brought a variety of commodities to coastal regions to trade for gold, local goods, and slaves. Eventually, this trade had profound effects on West African society: It reoriented trade routes toward the coast rather than across the Sahara, which led to the decline of interior states. It also led to an increasing traffic in humans to work, among other places, in the silver mines of the Americas.
In the Americas, silver mining at Potosí led to the deaths of eight million Indians. Meanwhile, Mexican silver production — which exceeded Peruvian production by the eighteenth century — resulted in the minting of half a billion Mexican pesos that were then used for currency in China, India, and West Africa.
In China, the demand for silver initially drove the global economy. Then, by 1750, silver glutted the Chinese market, bringing its price down and leading to inflation. The devaluation of silver in China had a devastating financial effect on Spain as well — a fact that allowed its European competitors to gain the upper hand in a new global trade focused on sugar, tobacco, gold, and slaves.
SELECTED IMAGES AND MAPS.
Anonymous, NAGASAKI BLOCK PRINT. DUTCH MERCHANT. (1700). Courtesy of WorldArt Kiosk/Kathleen Cohen.
Anonymous, AFRICAN MERCHANT SELLING SLAVES TO A EUROPEAN (n. d.). Original Source not identified.
C. Claez, MAP OF THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA (1596). Courtesy of The Image Works.
Anonymous Japanese, NAMBAN SCREEN: PORTUGUESE SHIP LANDING. DETAIL: PORTUGUESE TRADERS ON SHIPBOARD (ca 1500-1700). Courtesy of WorldArt Kiosk/Kathleen Cohen.
&부; Annenberg Foundation 2017. All rights reserved. Legal Policy.

Effects of the early modern global trade system

No other era is as easy to summarize as the EARLY MODERN (1450-1750) era. This is the era the Europeans "wake-up", expand, and build empires. I'm not talking about Charlemagne here. I'm talking about the British Empire. I'm talking about the Dutch East India Trading Company. I'm talking about the Spanish Empire. This is a new Europe. This isn't Marco Polo. These Europeans will come to your land and stay there. They will take over most of the world in this era (if not, in the next). Beyond the Maritime empires (and the effect of their establishment), many huge land empires emerged (most notably the Islamic Mughal and Ottoman Empires. Of course, China is important. It always is. So, here is the Early Modern Period.
The above map was created using the geographic references from this era in the AP World History curriculum. Every geographic reference for this unit appears on this map.
The interconnection of the Eastern and Western hemispheres made possible by transoceanic voyaging marked a key transformation of this period. Technological innovations helped to make transoceanic connections possible. Changing patterns of long-distance trade included the global circulation of some commodities and the formation of new regional markets and financial centers. Increased trans-regional and global trade networks facilitated the spread of religion and other elements of culture as well as the migration of large numbers of people. Germs carried to the Americas ravaged the indigenous peoples, while the global exchange of crops and animals altered agriculture, diets, and populations around the planet.
I. Existing regional patterns of trade intensified in the context of the new global circulation of goods.
A. The intensification of trade brought prosperity and economic disruption to the mercnahts and goverenments in the trading region of the Indian OCean, Mediterranean, the Sahara, and overland Eurasia.
II. European technological developments in cartography and navigation built on previous knowledge developed in the Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds.
A. The developments included the production of new tools, innovations in ship designs, and an improved understanding of global wind and current patterns--all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible.
IV. The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by royal chartered European monopoly companies and the flow of silver from the Spanish colonies in the Amerias to purchase Asian goods for the Atlantic markets. Regional markets continued to flourish in Afro-Eurasia by using established commercial practices and new transoceanic shipping services developed by European Merchants.
A. European merchants’ role in Asian trade was characterized mostly by transporting goods from one Asian country to another market in Asia or the Indian Ocean region.
B. Commercialization and the creation of a global economy were intimately connected to new global circulation of silver from the Americas. (SEE CRASH COURSE BELOW)
(John Green explores how Spain went from being a middling European power to one of the most powerful empires on Earth, thanks to their plunder ((silver)) of the New World in the 16th and 17th centuries.)
C. Mercantilist policies and practices were used by European rulers to expand and control their economies and claim overseas territories, and joint-stock companies, influenced by these mercantilist principles, were used by rulers and merchants to finance exploration and compete against one another in global trade.
V. The new connections between the Eastern and Western hemispheres resulted in the Columbian Exchange.
A. European colonization of the Americas led to the spread of diseases — including smallpox, measles, and influenza — that were endemic in the Eastern Hemisphere among Amerindian populations and the unintentional transfer of disease vectors, including mosquitoes and rats.
B. American foods (potatoes, maize, manioc) became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Cash crops (sugar, tobacco) were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor and were exported mostly to Europe and the Middle East in this period.
C. Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals (horses, cattle, pigs) were brought by Europeans to the Americas, while other foods were brought by African slaves ( okra, rice )
E. European colonization and the introduction of European agriculture and settlements practices in the Americas often affected the physical environment through deforestation and soil depletion.
VI. The increase in interactions between newly connected hemispheres and intensification of connections within hemispheres expanded the spread and reform of existing religions and contributed to both religious conflicts and the creation of syncretic belief systems and practices.
VII. As merchants' profits increased and governments collected more taxes, funding for the visual and performing arts, even for popular audiences, increased along with an expansion of literacy and increased focus on innovation and scientific inquiry.
(CLICK THIS LINK TO GO TO THE VIRGINIA SOL PAGE DEVOTED TO THE RENAISSANCE)
Although the world’s productive systems continued to be heavily centered on agricultural production throughout this period, major changes occurred in agricultural labor, the systems and locations of manufacturing, gender and social structures, and environmental processes. A surge in agricultural productivity resulted from new methods in crop and field rotation and the introduction of new crops. Economic growth also depended on new forms of manufacturing and new commercial patterns, especially in long-distance trade. Political and economic centers within regions shifted, and merchants’ social status tended to rise in various states. Demographic growth — even in areas such as the Americas, where disease had ravaged the population — was restored by the eighteenth century and surged in many regions, especially with the introduction of American food crops throughout the Eastern Hemisphere. The Columbian Exchange led to new ways of humans interacting with their environments. New forms of coerced and semi-coerced labor emerged in Europe, Africa, and the Americas, and affected ethnic and racial classifications and gender roles.
I. Beginning in the 14th Century, there was a decrease in mean temperatures, often referred to as the Little Ice Age, around the world that lasted until the 19th century, contributing to changes in agricultural practices and the contraction of settlement in parts of the Northern Hemisphere.
II. Traditional peasant agriculture increased and changed, plantations expanded, and demand for labor increased. These changes both fed and responded to growing global demand for raw materials and finished products.
B. Slavery in Africa continued both the traditional incorporation of mainly female slaves into households AND the export of slaves to the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean.
C. The growth of the plantation economy increased the demand for slaves in the Americas.
The Atlantic Slave Trade.
D. Colonial economies in the Americas depended on a range of coerced labor.
III. As new social and political elites changed, they also restructured new ethnic, racial, and gender hierarchies.
A. Both imperial conquests and widening global economic opportunities contributed to the formation of new political and economic elites.
B. The power of existing political and economic elites (Zamindars in the Mughal Empire, Nobility in Europe, Daimyo in Japan) fluctuated as they confronted new challenges to their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders.
C. Some notable gender and family restructuring (The dependence of European men on Southeast Asian women for conducting trade, smaller family size in Europe) occurred, including the demographic changes in Africa that resulted from the slave trades.
Empires expanded and conquered new peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse subjects, and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of the European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. In the Americas, European empires moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control, responding to local demographic and commercial conditions. Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic trade system that included the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states — especially on the coast; this led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior.
I. Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power.
A. Rules continued to use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule:
B. Many states adopted practices to accommodate the different ethnic and religious diversity of their subjects or to utilize the economic, political and military contributions of different ethnic or religious groups.
C. Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites , as well as the development of military professionals, ( Ottoman devshirme, Chinese examination system, Salaried samarai ) became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources.
D. Rulers used tribute collection and tax farming to generate revenue for territorial expansion.
II. Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres.
A. Europeans established new trading-post empires in Africa and Asia, which proved profitable for the rulers and merchants involved in new global trade networks, but these empires also affected the power of the states in interior West and Central Africa.
Although the AP doesn't specifically mention the Safavid or Tokugawa as Empires, they do show up at other points in the curriculum.
The information that follows is not specifically mentioned by the College Board. However, it will make you a more culturally well-rounded person; 그래서. you're welcome.
There is nothing more renaissance than Raphael's school of Athens. This is a painting of Classical era figures painted by an Italian during the Renaissance. It's almost redundant. Here's a key to who is who in this painting. The central figures are Plato and Aristotle. My favorite part? Raphael painted himself into the painting! Hes in the red robe in the upper right.
This colorful building looks completely out of place in Moscow, Russia (not exactly Disneyland). Plus, this beautiful building was ordered to be built by a guy named Ivan the Terrible! So, the background may not be what you think. The most common question about this cathedral is, "Didn't they blind the dude that built this so that he could never recreate its beauty?" No one knows for sure but the architect kept designing and building for another 10 years. So, if they did blind him; they did a terrible job.
Maybe the most famous building on earth not named the Pyramids. Built by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz Mahal died giving birth to her 14th child. It took over 21 years to complete and remains one of the true marvels of architecture on the planet.
Castas (Castes) were paintings that were used in Latin America to delineate between the new groups of people that were being born when Europeans, Africans, and Americans intermarried. The whiter you were, the higher your class in society.
Versailles was originally the hunting lodge for Louis XIII. It was located roughly 12 miles outside of Paris and served as an home away from home for the king. Louis XIV, the absolutist Absolute Monarch ever, decided to build an entire city around it. This was the home of the king for around 100 years until the French Revolution.

Economic Relations Between Europe and the World: Dependence and Interdependence.
Published Erschienen : 2012-05-31   
This article sketches the beginnings and central trends in the development of economic ties between Europe and regions outside Europe from 1450 to 1950. The focus is on the increasing diversity and volume of goods exchanged, and the reciprocal enrichment of material cultures between the continents. In this way, the article creates a vivid picture of the emergence of the global market and the beginnings of global competition. It also seeks to identify the central driving forces behind the successive periods of intensification of trade and interaction from the late Middle Ages to the modern period. Finally, this study describes the increasing interconnection of the economic regions of the Orient and the Occident, as well as the interdependence of the two.
Inhaltsverzeichnis Table of Contents.
General Trends in Development.
Trade played a more central role in the mercantilist period of European history from 1500 to 1750 – sometimes referred to as early capitalism or trade capitalism – than in almost any other period. 1 We must begin with the questions: When in human history did the first exchange of goods between Europe and the other four continents of Africa , Asia , America and Australia occur? Where are the origins of what one could describe as on-going exchange, as established economic relations to be found? These questions refer to an even larger global context because the global economic edifice changed fundamentally from "proto-globalization" to globalization. 2 This process was primarily determined by Europe from the 15th to the 20th century. From the 16th century to 1914, trade within Europe at all times constituted the most significant portion of global trade, and the volume of that trade grew disproportionately quickly during the early modern period and into the modern period. 3 National markets became increasingly interconnected, driven by numerous innovations in the areas of infrastructure, transportation, energy supply, and – not least – institutions (rules, constitutions, division of labour, currency standards, etc.). The transition from individual production to mass production and the convergence of prices of goods and materials made transactions considerably easier, thereby accelerating integration.
Starting in the late Middle Ages at the latest and continuing at least into the 19th century, Europe dominated most developments in international trade. From the end of the 19th century, North America began to exert a stronger influence on the global economy. 4 Around the beginning of the 21st century, the Asian states – most notably China – gained influence and the USA became financially dependent on its East Asian creditors, while China seems to become the engine of growth of the current century.
Europe Becomes Increasingly Central from the Late Middle Ages.
In the early part of the last millennium, population movement and the cultivation of new territories increased as a result of the crusades and the eastward expansion of the German-speaking population. In 1500, there were five cities in Europe with populations greater than 100,000: Venice, Genoa , Naples , Milan , and – as the only example north of the Alps – Paris .
The reasons why Europe was able to gain a significant economic advantage over the other continents during the course of the early modern period are complex in nature. Initially, land – as the most important resource – played a central role, prompting landlords to engage in territorial expansion to gain ownership of more land. Additionally, the distribution of land was an effective method of ensuring the loyalty of vassals. In the archaic societies of central and Eastern Europe , where low population density meant that migration and innovation rarely became necessary, this form of land ownership persisted for a long time, surviving into the 19th century in some cases. In relatively densely populated regions – particularly in Western Europe , where land enclosure became increasingly common –, goods and knowledge were frequently exchanged, often across borders. The leading states of the European continent usually showed themselves to be open to innovations. This applied both to technological and commercial innovations, the latter primarily originating in Italy . 5 The term "commercial revolution" is often used to describe this process. 6.
An argument often advanced to explain the unique position of Europe among the continents is the cultural and economic heterogeneity of its states. Migration and communication were the real accelerating factors of European history. The specific mix of (Italian) city states, principalities, bishoprics, kingdoms, etc., and the concomitant intensification of interregional competition accelerated development towards modernity. The "permanent incongruence" of economic, political and cultural factors explains the competitive dynamic of the continent.
The advanced system of education and the early institutionalization of centres of artisanal and early-industrial training and production also played their part. The liberalization of trade, craftsmanship and industrial labour, as well as the emergence of parliamentary democracy provided an essential basis for the generation of economic growth, which was accompanied from the 18th century by an impressive growth in population. The restless search for new knowledge which was a central feature of modern humanism and the enlightenment gave the Old Continent its unmistakeable appearance.
During the period of the ancien régime , the Netherlands had the most efficient and the most comprehensive network of roads of all the countries of Western Europe. 7 From the late Middle Ages, increasing international trade made an international information and communications network necessary. As mediators between worlds, merchants often maintained their own courier services. For example, the Fuggers maintained a system of couriers between Augsburg and Venice in the 16th century. 8 Conurbations with intensive commercial activity subsequently emerged in and around Amsterdam , London and Paris, as well as in the Aachen - Lüttich and Ruhr regions . Per capita incomes and the standard of living rose much more quickly in these regions than elsewhere. However, the rapid industrialisation of Central, Western and Northern Europe required considerable resources. In the 19th century, coal replaced wood as the main source of energy. In the 20th century, oil largely replaced coal. Electricity, generated hydro-electrically, as well as coal, oil, nuclear energy and solar energy emerged as the most adaptable form of energy which was available almost everywhere. The transportation of this energy played an increasingly important role in international trade. 9.
The "Oligopolization" of the Global Economy.
In the period between the Industrial Revolution and the First World War, three powers were central in determining the rate of economic growth in Europe and Europe's relative importance in world events: Great Britain , Germany and France . In 1913, the last year in the first half of the 20th century which can be described as a "normal year", these three countries dominated large sections of the global economy. In this context, it is possible to speak of an "oligopolization" of the global economy, on which – along with the USA – these three states exerted the greatest influence. While these three countries contained less than half of the population of Europe, they accounted for approximately three quarters of Europe's industrial production and three quarters of all trade between Europe and the rest of the world. The high productivity levels of their economies were clearly reflected in the structure of their trade, i. e., in the exportation of industrial products and the importation of raw materials. As a result, these countries dominated the international flow of capital and direct foreign investment in the years before the First World War. In the absence of supranational economic institutions, Great Britain, which in London provided the central capital market of the world, in effect ensured that the global economy continued to function. 10 Besides, the Bank of England followed the principle of the gold standard in all money and capital markets of the world and Great Britain generally adhered to liberal political principles. However, it proved impossible to resurrect this system after the First World War. After the global catastrophe of the Great Depression, global trade volumes declined by 26% and European trade by 38%. 11.
In the period between the Great Crash and the Second World War, national concepts replaced unified (foreign) economic and currency policies in Europe. In 1932, Britain forfeited its policy of free trade and gave precedence to the Commonwealth. Economic policy in the Third Reich followed Hjalmar Schacht's (1877–1970) Neuer Plan , with a series of discriminatory measures and a reorientation of foreign trade towards Eastern Europe and Latin America . France tried to improve matters by binding public and private capital together in so-called mixed companies in the key industries. 12.
The Second World War not only blocked the circulation of goods and capital within Europe, but it brought an end to the global economy for decades by splitting Europe into an eastern and a western part. Italy, Austria , the Federal Republic of Germany , France and the other democratic states committed themselves to liberal, free market economics and social democracy, while Poland , Bulgaria , Romania , Czechoslovakia , Hungary and East Germany adopted the centrally planned economy model of the Soviet Union , until this system was brought to an end by the people through a peaceful revolution after 45 years. Even before this, the view had gained acceptance that the innovation-oriented system of free market economics was superior to the more static concept of central planning and dictatorial management, and there had been signs of the approaching dissolution of the latter.
The reunified Germany and the "old" European axis powers were then able to agree new European economic, currency, and trade policies under the auspices of European supranational institutions such as the Council of Europe and the European Central Bank. Already in 1957, six western European states founded the European Economic Community (EEC). The establishment of a customs union in 1968 was a decisive step towards further integration. The European Union (EU), which had 12 members in 1986 and increased to 27 in 2011, developed into one of the strongest economic powers in the world beside the USA, Japan and China. With the European Central Bank and the Euro, the European Union established a uniform legal means of payment, which increasingly became a kind of reserve currency alongside the American dollar.
Phases of Different Intensity and Concentration in Growth and Trade.
The expansion of European overseas trade did not occur in a linear fashion. Qualitatively and quantitatively, the 12th and 13th centuries, and the 16th and early 17th centuries were periods of strong commercial growth. Conversely, the 14th and 15th centuries, the second half of the 17th century and the first half of the 18th century must be viewed as phases of weaker or stagnating economic growth. 13.
The phases of pronounced expansion were usually accompanied by a strong increase in trade over land, primarily in a north-south direction (through the Champagne region in the Middle Ages, and through southern Germany in the second half of the 15th century and in the 16th century), but also in an east-west direction. In the 12th and 13th centuries, increasing sea-borne traffic in the Mediterranean provided a significant stimulus to transcontinental trade. Similarly, the phase of growth in transcontinental trade in the 16th century was accompanied by advances in Atlantic and intercontinental shipping. In the High Middle Ages, trade was also stimulated by the transportation of goods by caravan from regions in the Far East to Central Asia and finally to Eurasia . The southeastern European focal point of this trade was Venice, which – not coincidentally – was also the departure point of merchants such as the brothers Niccolò (1230–1300) and Maffeo Polo (1252–1309), and Niccolò's son Marco Polo (1254–1324)[ ]. 14 In the 16th century, expansion occurred along the coasts of Central and South America to the silver mines of Potosí (in present-day Bolivia ) and Zacatecas in Mexico , bringing Atlantic trade and European trade rich returns.
While European trade over land grew very slowly or stagnated in the late Middle Ages, trade between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea (Hanse), and between the ports of the North Sea (particularly Bruges ) and the ports of northern and central Italy increased considerably. Growth was clearly driven by maritime expansion. Those who controlled the ocean had a position of hegemony in intercontinental mercantilist trade. 15 From the 17th century, the trade in goods with regions outside of Europe grew as a result of the emergence of Dutch and British colonial trade. However, this could not fully compensate for the decrease in trade over land during the periods of weakness. In general, trade and economic development now occurred primarily in the central ports and their surrounding regions along the coasts of the European mainland. 16 It is in this context that some speak of the "économie du pourtour", or the economy of the surrounding area, which refers to a particular economic region – for example, the Mediterranean – and its specific development. 17.
In the two periods of weak European growth, growth in maritime trade in the overseas regions was not particularly spectacular either. On the contrary, during the great depression in the 14th and 15th centuries, the conquests of the Turks and, in particular, the Mongol Tatars deprived European trade of access to important markets in the Levant . During the second period of weak economic growth in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, European overseas trade did not begin to expand significantly again until after the Portuguese-Spanish colonial empire had been replaced by the Dutch-British empire. This involved a certain shift of geographical focus, but it was essentially based on simple trade and exchange at garrisons and coastal bases, as well as plantation agriculture, which bore characteristics of slash-and-burn economics. In other words, colonial expansion also remained an économie du pourtour .
From the mid-18th century, both transcontinental and sea-borne trade experienced strong growth. The targeted expansion of European transportation and trade infrastructure, and the gradual acceptance of liberal economic thought, which replaced protectionist mercantilism, resulted in the dawn of a new period of economic development not only in Europe, but also overseas. The integration of the colonial interior, which was begun by Great Britain during the 18th century, assumed considerable importance in the early 19th century with the emergence of the idea of the frontier . Britain's "new colonial system" gradually transformed into a North American cotton-producing industry which accompanied and supported the emergence of early-industrial mechanization in Europe. 18.
European Trade During Industrialization.
During the period of classical national economics, Adam Smith's (1723–1790)[ ] magnum opus The Wealth of Nations of 1776 provided a theoretical justification of free trade. However, a series of political events and external shocks called into question the practicality of free trade. These included, for example, the continental blockade which occurred during the course of Napoleonic expansion, which crippled trade and commerce for years. 19 Even the subsequent period of the Restoration must be viewed more as a regression into protectionism than a liberalization of trade. 20 However, the introduction of the Code civil (1804) and the Code de Commerce (1807) in France and in the regions under French influence, such as the kingdom of Westphalia , provided a modern (economic) system, which included rational regulations and made trade easier. The introduction of the metric system, the dissolution of the guilds, and the introduction of a progressive agrarian order were the cornerstones of the reform, which was gradually transferred to other European countries after the Restoration. Early industrialization and the post-Restoration phase were thus accompanied by broader systemic measures, such as various forms of agrarian reform ("peasant emancipation", "enclosures", etc.), anti-protectionism (customs union, commercial liberalisation, trade treaties with mutual most-favoured-status, Cobden treaty, etc.) and fiscal and financial rationalization (regulations and standards in the areas of measures, coinage and weights, as well as currency and bank reforms, etc.). These brought about a lasting improvement in the terms of trade of the countries involved, 21 thereby providing a relatively well-ordered and secure economic basis for the formation of nation-states. However, Europe was very diverse economically, and there were pioneers (Britain, France, Switzerland , etc.) and latecomers, which included southern and eastern Europe and most of the German lands. 22 However, the latecomers were able to learn from the mistakes made by the pioneers and to adapt the innovative technologies of the latter. Consequently, Germany, for example, was able to catch up very quickly in the late 19th century and even became the world leader in certain segments of the global market (chemistry, optics, steel industry, machinery, electrical engineering, etc.) by the outbreak of the First World War. 23 Comparative research into productivity gives many indicators of how the economies of the European states developed differently and at different times. 24.
European industrialization lead to a rapid increase in demand for agricultural and industrial raw materials as well as for other goods, and it made the provision of quicker, cheaper and more efficient means of transportation and communication necessary . Both internal European trade and trade between Europe and the rest of the world were considerably boosted by determinedly liberal trade policies, which were, however, increasingly called into question after 1914 and ultimately completely abandoned during the interwar years (to be reintroduced after the Second World War). Nevertheless, technological innovations, air transport, and the emergence of new means of communication (telex, electronic communication, etc.) resulted in the increasingly intensive integration of Europe and the world, although industrial development proceeded slowly, if at all, in the countries on the European periphery. For example, there were tendencies towards de-industrialization in the Balkans . 25.
The First World War moved the axes of global trade. The international currency system disintegrated, and in 1914 countries such as Russia , Germany and France abandoned the convertibility of their currencies into gold. Since the most serious events of the war occurred on the European continent, they damaged structures of production and considerably harmed economic growth there. The high costs involved in converting factories from peacetime to war production, naval blockades, risk premiums, increasing inflation, and the rapidly rising cost of transactions due to the war damaged the European continent. As a result, the global economic order had undergone fundamental change to the advantage of America by 1918. Europe's portion of the world social product was declining.
The interwar years were defined by crises like no other period. Even in many European countries, currency and financial systems disintegrated. In particular, Weimar Germany was hit by a series of crises and political setbacks, for example the assassination of politicians such as Matthias Erzberger (1875–1921) and Walther Rathenau (1867–1922)[ ], hyperinflation in 1923, and the global financial crisis in 1929, which plunged large parts of Europe into massive deflation with extremely high unemployment . France, Great Britain and southern and eastern Europe were also affected by the dire global financial climate, or were weakened by internal revolts. Protectionism blossomed in the interwar period, resulting in a kind of "de-Europeanization" of the global economy. The industrial nations outside Europe, particularly the USA, Canada and Japan, saw their portion of the global market increase, while the portion of global exports of the three big countries in Europe (France, Great Britain, Germany) decreased.
The dominance of protectionism and state intervention resulted in a kind of splintering of the global economy into systems and preference zones which were isolated from one another to a greater or lesser degree. Interwar Germany accessed energy resources and raw materials in eastern and southeastern Europe to strengthen its industry, but it neglected its consumer goods industry. In general, the interwar period in Europe was characterized by economic and social disintegration, and the "European house" had to be rebuilt from its foundations after the Second World War. This involved decreasing the amount of money in circulation, establishing monetary order, and making the European countries fit to re-join the global market. Thanks in large part to the Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program), these goals were largely achieved and impressive export-led economic growth followed. The OEEC ( Organization for European Economic Cooperation ) provided an effective institutional basis for this process. As a result of the Schuman Plan and conciliation efforts on all levels, Germany, France, the Benelux states and Italy were able to establish a relatively stable basis for European integration. The cautious attempts to influence industrial development involved in the Coal and Steel Pact 26 ultimately led to the founding of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957. In the following year, the European Parliament was established in Strasbourg with Robert Schuman (1886–1963)[ ] as its first president. The Treaties of Rome (25th of March, 1957), on which the EEC was based, constituted a first big step on the road to European political and economic integration. This not only provided a strong stimulus to "internal" integration, but also built an initial framework for external relations.
With a 20% share of all global imports and exports, the European Union is the largest commercial power in the 21st century, 27 followed by the USA, China and Japan. In 2010, goods to the value of 15,238 billion US dollars were exported worldwide (in 2009, it was 12,522 billion dollars). This equates to a growth of approximately 21.7% from 2009. The main exporters were the People's Republic of China, the USA, Germany, Japan and the Netherlands. These five countries together accounted for 35.9% of worldwide goods exports. In 2010, China was at the top of the list of the world's strongest exporting nations for the second time, followed by the USA and Germany. 28.
Europe and the African World.
The discovery and conquest of Africa, America and East India in the late Middle Ages and the early modern period had long-lasting effects on the territories and regions involved. During the course of the 15th century, Portugal – centrally located at the connection between the two Atlantic zones – was able to conquer strategic locations along the west coast of Africa and in the African Atlantic region, though these bases suffered serious reversals between 1475 and 1480. 29 In the 1440s, the Portuguese expanded their trade in African slaves in the coastal region of the Rio de Oro, which they were now able to conduct without the assistance of Asian and African middlemen. These strongly fortified settlements, such as those on the west African island of Arguim and in the town of Elmina in present-day Ghana , were not only centres of the slave trade, but also served as bases for the trade in gold, malagueta pepper, ivory and other trade goods.
Initially, it was Italian sailors and captains who, in the service of Portugal, explored the Atlantic islands off North Africa . 30 In 1312, Lanzarotto Malocello (ca. 1270–1336), who came from the region around Genoa, discovered the Canary Islands . Lanzarote was named after him. In the early 15th century, the Portuguese secured further towns and islands in the region, for example Ceuta in 1415, Madeira in 1418, the Azores in 1427 and Cape Bojador on the African mainland. Subsequently, further bases along the west coast of Africa were added, progressing from north to south: Cabo Branco in 1441, Cape Verde in 1444, and the mouth of River Gambia in 1446. In 1456, the Italian Alvise Cadamosto (1432–1488), who was in the service of Henry the Navigator (1394–1460), claimed the Cape Verde Islands for Portugal. 31 Sierra Leone was claimed in 1460, and Fort São Jorge da Mina was constructed two years later. Here, the Portuguese began to trade extensively, acquiring African gold in return for red and blue dyed cloth, head scarves, coral from Europe, brass armbands from Germany, and Portuguese white wine. In this trade as in the slave trade, yellow and red mussels from the Canaries were used as money. 32.
In the early modern period, Africa became the preferred region of operation of the privileged trading companies. England, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland and a number of other European countries delivered manufactured goods made of glass, metal and textiles, as well as weapons and alcohol to Africa in exchange for slaves, provisions, gold, etc. This European-African trade was often just one leg of the so-called triangular trade between Europe, Africa and America. This system of trade remained dominant from the 17th to the early 19th century, at which point the increasingly pervasive ban on slave trading shifted the focus of trade in Africa. Most of the African states became dependent on European colonial powers who reduced them to the status of suppliers of raw materials and comprehensively exploited them. Similar to South America, monocultures emerged in Africa which were heavily dependent on the weather conditions and the harvest cycle. Water shortages, famines, low per capita incomes and low literacy levels remain the consequences of African "modernity" up to the present. In many African states, the economic dominance of Western states persists up to the present, often referred to as neo-colonialism in the literature. The continuing demand for raw materials on the global market could greatly improve growth and the balance of trade in the resource-rich states of Africa if the resulting export surpluses were invested in the respective countries and found their way into the pockets of consumers there. In general, large differences in per capita incomes exist between the individual African states. The economic reality of Africa is too complex to be described solely in terms of dependency theories or the world system approach. 33.
Europe, the Orient and Asia.
Leaving aside classical antiquity, territorial expansion from Europe towards Asia can be traced back to the period of the crusades, which lasted from the end of the 11th to the 13th century. Along the routes followed by the crusaders to southeastern Europe, across the Balkans and to the Levant, an impressive infrastructure emerged to meet the weaponry and provisioning needs of a few hundred thousand crusading knights and pilgrims bound for Jerusalem . Many of these provisioning stations were subsequently used by Italian and other European merchants for the transportation of goods to and from the Middle East and the Levant. Venice proved to be particularly well-placed geographically to benefit from this trade. It became the focal point for the exchange of goods and information between Asia and Europe, 34 and a "model" for the subsequent trade networks of the colonial powers of Portugal, the Netherlands and Britain. 35 The golden age of the lagoon city reached a climax after the conquest of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade (1199–1204). It is no coincidence that it was Venetian merchants like Niccolò, Maffeo and Marco Polo who helped to establish the trade in goods with the Chinese Empire and even established diplomatic relations with the court of Kublai Khan (1215–1295). In doing so, they utilized existing routes such as the Silk Road , an important axis of medieval "global trade" which grew in importance in the late 13th and 14th centuries. This had a profound effect not only on the material culture of Europe, but also on Europeans' idea of Asia. In the Battle of Curzola in 1298, Marco Polo was taken into Genoese captivity, and he described his journey to the writer Rusticiano da Pisa while in prison. Through the writings of the latter, some details of Polo's experiences in China entered the mosaic of images, facts and beliefs which Europeans associated with China. In addition to members of the Polo family, other contemporaries also set out for Central Asia, such as the Flanders native Wilhelm von Rubruk (ca. 1210–1270) who set out in May 1253. Many were clergymen, such as the Franciscan Johannes von Montecorvino (1247–1328) who visited India and reported on spices such as pepper and cinnamon, and on the culinary habits of the Indians. Odorico da Pordenone (ca. 1286–1331) from Udine , who was also a Franciscan monk, travelled in 1314/1315 via Ceylon , Java , Singapore and southern China to Peking , and he reported on his experiences, both ordinary and extraordinary. More than 110 of his manuscripts have survived, and his influence has been significant. 36.
Whereas the Polos had travelled to Asia primarily by land, sea voyages to Asia increased from 1488 onward when Bartholomeu Diaz (ca. 1450–1500) from Portugal became the first to sail around the Cape of Good Hope . The establishment of the Portuguese empire in India made European-Asian relationships more permanent and secure. In some cases, Italian sea captains and southern German capital participated in these voyages. 37 In the context of this double expansion in the Atlantic region and in the Far East, Lisbon became increasingly central and pivotal in global trade. It was no coincidence that many overseas expeditions by important explorers began in the Portuguese capital.
The first expeditions to Asia during and after the discovery of the sea route around the Cape of Good Hope and into the Indian Ocean witnessed conspicuous efforts on the part of southern, central and western European merchants and consortia to promote their interests in the east by means of agents. For example, wealthy Nuremberg and Augsburg merchants, and Dutchmen participated in the first voyages to India. Following the punctual pattern established in Africa, the Portuguese began to fortify ports and towns in strategically important places, in order to make them impervious to attacks. The cities of Calicut and Goa are examples on the Indian west coast. Development in the early modern period was dominated by the privileged trading companies of the Dutch and the British, but also of smaller states such as Denmark . 38.
From the 17th century, the Netherlands played a leading role in trade between Europe and the rest of the world, particularly trade with Asia. In the 18th century, Great Britain dominated the Asian markets, though its focus was on India instead of Indonesia and Southeast Asia . The British East India Company, founded in 1600, and the Dutch East India Company , founded in 1602, dominated markets in the Indian Ocean and – to a lesser extent – in the South China Sea . Their power extended far beyond trade, and it resulted in a "golden age" in Holland and its main city, Amsterdam. 39.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, parts of Asia were increasingly drawn into the process of European industrialization. India in particular, as part of the Commonwealth, became an important source of raw materials (particularly cotton) as well as food and stimulants (particularly tea). The period of industrialization and of the rise of the middle class in Europe would not have been possible without these supplies and the intensification of exchange with Asia. The building of railways – a European innovation – began in the 19th century in Turkey , India, Japan and China, with lasting consequences for the territorialisation of economics and trade, and it provided the basis for further trade. The telegraph line between Calcutta and London, which was constructed by Siemens and opened in 1870, gave an important new stimulus to trade and the exchange of information between Europe and Asia. In all regions of Asia, enclaves and cities remained in European ownership until relatively recently, as in the case of Hong Kong which the British only relinquished in 1997.
America, the Pacific and Asia.
If one defines interdependence as a regular, planned, systematic, on-going and reciprocal exchange of information and goods, then one can observe the beginning of American-Asian relations in 1519, at which time the Manila fleets began to sail regularly from Acapulco (Mexico) to Indonesia, or more specifically to the port city and trading centre of Manila on the Philippines . They brought precious metals, particularly silver, from Central America to Asia and usually transported spices, silks, porcelain and jewels back. Pearls from the islands of Cubagua and Margarita off the coast of Venezuela were also traded overseas. In the 16th century, this trade prompted southern German merchants such as Christoph Herwart (1464–1529) to get involved in trade with India. 40
Europe Meets Australia in the 17th Century.
It can be assumed that the discovery of the Cape York Peninsula by the Dutchman Willem Jansz (ca. 1570–1630) in 1606 was one of the first instances of economic contact between Europe and Australia. A decade later, Dirk Hartog (1580–1621) reached the west coast of Australia. During the course of the 17th century, Willem de Vlamingh (1640–1698) and William Dampier (1651–1715) "discovered" other parts of the Australian continent, thereby facilitating the more concentrated exploration and mapping of Australia. From a European perspective, Australia did not play a significant role in trade, though there was some British foreign investment in Australia before the First World War. This was focused primarily on the building and financing of infrastructure projects (railways, harbours, public buildings, etc.). Conversely, Australian wool and mutton were exported to Europe. 41.
Europe, the Atlantic and America.
The beginning of relatively regular economic relations between Europe and America occurred in the 16th century. The initial contact with America which Vikings under Erik the Red (950–ca. 1005) established around 1000 BC cannot be described as a lasting exchange; neither can such exchange be said to have existed in the first two or three decades after America was rediscovered by the Genoese sailor Christopher Columbus (1451–1506). 42.
Trade between the Old World and the New World constantly experienced fluctuations which were caused by by economic growth and developments such as the discovery, mining and transportation of precious metals. This was true in particular of silver and gold from South America and Central America, and later from North America. The supply of coin metal to European states from overseas affected the currency stability, liquidity, monetary independence, and ultimately the profitability of early modern capital markets. However, due to insufficient domestic production, Spain was constantly dependent on imports from Asia, and a considerable portion of the precious metals imported from South America was transferred to Asia via Cádiz and Seville as payment. Consequently, the quantity of precious metals which was used to mint coins in Spain and Portugal should not be overestimated. The inflationary effect of imported precious metals was therefore less significant than has been assumed. 43.
Around the beginning of the 16th century, Portugal's double expansion continued with its turning westward and commencing to colonize Brazil . Impressive colonial cities came into being on the coast, such as Salvador do Bahia , the first capital city of Brazil. The eastern part of South America had been granted to the Portuguese by Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503) in the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) . Around 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral (ca. 1468–1520) claimed mainland Brazil for Portugal, and expeditions during the course of the 16th century, such as those by Martim Afonso de Sousa (1500–1564), explored the Brazilian interior. During this time, several groups of Portuguese Jesuits founded towns and the earliest sugar cane plantations in Brazil. One such sugar mill was acquired by the Schetz company of Antwerp in 1540. 44 Sugar production in Brazil was able to increase vastly in scale because of the use of African slaves, thereby paving the way for the basic forms of tropical agricultural production which were to become the predominant forms in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean , as well as in the southern part of North America. Brazil played a large role in supplying Europe with inexpensive sugar in the early modern period due to big increases in productivity in the cultivation of sugar cane which brought down the price of sugar. A similar development occurred in the case of maize, cocoa, coffee, tobacco and cotton.
In the second third of the 16th century, transatlantic relations intensified, due in part to the discovery of precious metals in South America. During the course of the discovery of the American continent, not only did people of different ethnic backgrounds encounter one another, the material culture was also greatly enriched, for example by the arrival of previously unknown plants, animals and goods in Europe. Medieval Europe had no knowledge of cocoa and, consequently, of chocolate. Some present-day dietary staples such as maize and the potato, which – like tapioca and nasturtium – are good sources of carbohydrates, were previously unknown in Europe also. Equally new to Europeans were sugar-rich plants such as sugar maple and protein-rich legumes such as beans. Other plants such as peanuts provided oil and fat. New vegetable types such as tomatoes, peppers and pumpkins, and nuts and fruits from avocados and pineapples to guavas and papayas appeared on European tables. Europe became acquainted with intoxicants such as the products of the maté tree and the coca bush. Spices such as vanilla, allspice and chili contributed to the refinement of European culinary tastes. Tobacco was also cultivated in Europe for the first time in the early modern period. It is beyond question that the exchange of new types of food and stimulants has had an effect on patterns of behaviour – and even on architecture – in the modern period. Smoking rooms or gentlemen's rooms containing pipe stands, ashtrays, matches and similar utensils were a given in 18th-century and 19th-century villas. Coffee houses were often popular meeting places for artists and literati, and were consequently much-frequented places for meeting and communication which had a considerable effect on the culture of large European cities.
New types of wood, such as rare pine species and mahogany, appeared in the sitting rooms of affluent Europeans. Quebracho trees and various species of mangrove provided tannic acid. Rubber trees and sweet potato trees provided rubber, while the wax palm, the carnauba palm and the jojoba provided wax. The variety of dyes available was also increased by access to tropical plants, ranging from the brazil wood to the redwood, the logwood, the yellowwood, and indigo, which began to replace woad in Europe. The New World was also a source of numerous plants which provided insecticides, such as barbasco roots, the bitterwood, and the cashew nut; even tobacco falls into this category. Today "American" plants are even used as fuel sources, as experiments with tapioca, maize and species of copaiba demonstrate. 45.
Conversely, Europe enriched the American continent by the introduction of new animal and plant species, as well as new inventions, cultivation techniques and ideas. These ranged from horses, cattle, donkeys and hens to honeybees and silkworms, and from new types of cereals such as barley to apples, apricots, almonds, various types of cabbage, carrots, aubergines, flax and garlic. Europeans also introduced a vast array of weapons and craft tools, as well as institutional innovations such as Roman law, which was established in many states of North and South America. There were also innovations such as the amalgamation process for extracting silver and gold from ores using mercury, or book printing, which accelerated and intensified the transfer of information and knowledge from the Old World to the New World.
To summarize, the encounter between the material and intellectual cultures of Europe and America resulted in enormous mutual enrichment and inspiration. 46 However, it also had negative effects, such as the transfer of diseases in both directions. Many more indigenous Americans died as a result of "European" diseases than died in violent confrontations during the course of the Conquista . Conversely, European travellers contracted "American" illnesses which had not existed in medieval Europe.
The Netherlands, England, France, and other European countries (Denmark, Sweden , Austria, Prussia , Switzerland, etc.) sought to gain access to trade in Asia, Africa and America by means of privileged companies. In the 17th and 18th centuries, this often took the form of the so-called triangular trade, i. e., participation in trade with Africa, America and the Caribbean, and the rest of Europe, African trade being largely synonymous with slave trading. Slaves were bought in exchange for European manufactured goods and subsequently transported to the large estates of the West Indies and America on special slave ships. 47 In the early modern period, 10 to 12 million Africans were taken in this way to the New World, from where colonial produce was transported to Europe. Privileged European trading companies were also employed in Atlantic trade, such as the Royal African Company and the Hudson's Bay Company, the Dutch West India Company and corresponding French companies.
The expanding European settlements in America required a growing number of labourers for the work on plantations and other possessions. As a result, the triangular trade persisted until the abolition movement of the 19th century. Denmark and Great Britain abolished slavery in 1807, followed by the USA in 1808, and Holland and France in 1814. In addition to the role played by the American and French revolutions in promoting freedom and human rights, economic interests played a decisive role in this process. New economic systems which emerged as a result of the industrial revolutions began to replace old mercantilist forms. The emerging polypolistic variety of markets was accompanied by the intensification of market formation and of competition. An economic transformation occurred, which introduced new institutional forms, a liberal economic and social order, and a radical integration of world markets. Subsequently, global exports grew as a proportion of the world social product from approximately 1% in 1825 to approximately 8% in 1900, and finally to approximately 16% in 2000. The global economy has multiplied by 44 since 1820, and global trade has grown in volume by a factor of 600 in the same period.
Up to the First World War, Western Europe undoubtedly contributed most to the world gross social product. In 1913, it accounted for 906 billion international dollars (of a total of 1990 billion), which equates to 33.5% of the World Gross Domestic Product (GDP). By 1950, this percentage declined to 26.3%, and by 1998 to 20.6%. 48 While Europe's trade with territories in the rest of the world grew in absolute terms, it became less important in relative terms since trade relations between the industrialized countries grew disproportionately quickly in significance.
Rolf Walter , Jena.
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^ Glamann, Der europäische Handel 1983, pp. 271–333, here: 271. ^ Walter, Globalisierung 2011, pp. 7ff.; also contains the term "proto-globalization". ^ Kellenbenz, Handbuch Europäische Wirtschafts - und Sozialgeschichte 1986, vol. 3. ^ Cameron, Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft 1992, vol. 2, pp. 15ff., 181ff. ^ See the following works: Melis, Il comercio transatlantico 1954; de Maddalena, La ricchezza dell'Europa 1992; de Roover, Business 1974 und Cassandro, L'irradiazione economica fiorentina 1995. ^ See: Lopez, The Commercial Revolution 1976; Rapp, Unmaking 1975. ^ Blockmans, Macht 1998, p. 37. ^ Behringer, Fugger und Taxis 1986, pp. 242f. ^ Fremdling, Technologischer Wandel 1986, passim. ^ Burk, Money and Power 1992, p. 359. ^ Pinder, Europa in der Weltwirtschaft 1986, pp. 377f., 382. ^ ibid., p. 386. ^ Walter, Globalisierung 2011, p. 9. ^ Reichert, Begegnungen 1992. ^ Diwald, Weltmeere 1980, pp. 269 ff. and passim; Scammell, The World Encompassed 1981. ^ Van der Wee / Aerts, De economische ontwikkeling van Europa 1994, pp. 167f. ^ Braudel, Civilisation matérielle, vol. 2, 1986. ^ Mieck, Handbuch EWSG, vol. 4, 1993; Bayly, Birth 2004; Walter, Wirtschaftsgeschichte 2011, pp. 74ff. ^ Walter, Commerz 1987, pp. 193–218, here: 195f. ^ Kutz, Außenhandel 1974, passim. ^ Von Borries, Außenhandel 1970, pp. 82ff. and passim. ^ See: Gerschenkron, Backwardness 1968. ^ See: Fremdling, Wirtschaftswachstum 1985; Grabas, Konjunktur 1992. ^ See: Fremdling / O'Brian 1983. ^ Fäßler, Globalisierung 2007, p. 97. ^ Walter, Wirtschaftsgeschichte 2011, p. 262. ^ Europäische Union, Trade 2012. ^ WTO, International Trade Statistics 2011. ^ Kraus / Ottomeyer, Novos mundos 2007. ^ Verlinden, Atlantischer Raum und Indische-Ozean-Zone 1982. ^ Ankenbauer, "das ich mochte meer newer dyng erfaren" 2010, pp. 80ff. ^ Teixeira da Mota, Der portugiesische Seehandel 1969, pp. 7ff.; Hogendorn / Johnson, The Shell Money 1986. ^ Wallerstein, The Modern World System, vol. 1–3, 1974–1988, passim. ^ Martin / Romano, Venice Reconsidered 2000. ^ Van der Wee, Structural changes 1990, pp. 14–33. ^ Reichert, Erfahrung der Welt 2001, pp. 165ff., 203ff. and passim; idem, Begegnungen 1992, pp. 287–293. ^ Wiesflecker, Neue Beiträge 2005, pp. 647ff.; Kalus, Pfeffer 2010. ^ Nagel, Abenteuer Fernhandel 2007 (see the informative maps on pp. 33, 73, 103); Krieger, Kaufleute, Seeräuber und Diplomaten 1998. ^ Israel, Dutch Primacy 1989; North, Das Goldene Zeitalter 2001, pp. 19ff. and passim. ^ Kellenbenz, Ostindienhandel 1991; Walter, Oberdeutsche 2001, p. 42 and passim; Kalus, Pfeffer 2010, pp. 74, 106 and passim. ^ Cameron, Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft 1992, vol. 2, pp. 108f. ^ Walter, Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft 2006, pp. 103ff. ^ Pieper, Preisrevolution 1985, passim; Hamilton, American Treasure 1934. ^ Kellenbenz, Dreimal Lateinamerika 1990, p. 190. ^ Ewald, Pflanzen Iberoamerikas 1995, pp. 48ff. ^ Crosby, Columbian Exchange 1972, passim. ^ See: Degn, Die Schimmelmanns 2000; Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade 1999. ^ Maddison, The World Economy 2001, p. 261, Table B-18.
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